The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein binds and modulates estrogen receptors

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike (S) protein binds angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 as its primary infection mechanism. Interactions between S and endogenous proteins occur after infection but are not well understood. We profiled binding of S against >9000 human proteins and found an interaction between S and human estrogen receptor ? (ER?). Using bioinformatics, supercomputing, and experimental assays, we identified a highly conserved and functional nuclear receptor coregulator (NRC) LXD-like motif on the S2 subunit. In cultured cells, S DNA transfection increased ER? cytoplasmic accumulation, and S treatment induced ER-dependent biological effects. Non-invasive imaging in SARS-CoV-2-infected hamsters localized lung pathology with increased ER? lung levels. Postmortem lung experiments from infected hamsters and humans confirmed an increase in cytoplasmic ER? and its colocalization with S in alveolar macrophages. These findings describe the discovery of a S-ER? interaction, imply a role for S as an NRC, and advance knowledge of SARS-CoV-2 biology and coronavirus disease 2019 pathology.