Materials characterization by synchrotron x-ray microprobes and nanoprobes

In recent years synchrotron x-ray microprobes and nanoprobes have emerged as key characterization tools with a remarkable impact for different scientific fields including solid-state, applied, high-pressure, and nuclear physics, chemistry, catalysis, biology, and cultural heritage. This review provides a comparison of the different probes available for the space-resolved characterization of materials (i. e., photons, electrons, ions, neutrons) with particular emphasis on x rays. Subsequently, an overview of the optics employed to focus x rays and the most relevant characterization techniques using x rays (i. e., x-ray diffraction, wide-angle x-ray scattering, small-angle x-ray scattering, x-ray absorption spectroscopy, x-ray fluorescence, x-ray-excited optical luminescence, and photoelectron spectroscopy) is reported. Strategies suitable to minimize possible radiation damage induced by brilliant focused x-ray beams are briefly discussed. The general concepts are then exemplified by a selection of significant applications of x-ray microbeams and nanobeams to materials science. Finally, the future perspectives for the development of nanoprobe science at synchrotron sources and free-electron lasers are discussed.