Seniority in Academia and R&D

The chapter explores the vertical segregation, i.e. the dissimilarity in the distributions of the sexes throughout a given hierarchical system. In academia, the FR-feminization ratios are lower for senior staff than for the staff in general and the percentage of women in the top grade never exceeds 21%. There are also high level of vertical dissimilarity among R&D personnel in many countries, but the pattern varies across sectors. The relationship between occupations seems to depend on the institutional sector and the group of countries.