Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors as Mediators of Phthalate-Induced Effects in the Male and Female Reproductive Tract: Epidemiological and Experimental Evidence

There is growing evidence that male as well as female reproductive function has been declining in human and wildlife popula-
tions over the last 40 years. Several factors such as lifestyle or environmental xenobiotics other than genetic factors may play a role
in determining adverse e ff ects on reproductive health. Among the environmental xenobiotics phthalates, a family of man-made
pollutants are suspected to interfere with the function of the endocrine system and therefore to be endocrine disruptors. The def-
inition of endocrine disruption is today extended to broader endocrine regulations, and includes activation of metabolic sensors,
such as the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). Toxicological studies have shown that phthalates can activate a
subset of PPARs. Here, we analyze the epidemiological and experimental evidence linking phthalate exposure to both PPAR acti-
vation and adverse e ff ects on male and female reproductive health.